European powers used different administrative policies to control African territories, but all colonial systems ultimately subordinated African political authority.
Direct Rule
European officials exercised central authority directly through colonial departments, courts, taxation and security forces.
Indirect Rule
Traditional rulers were retained as intermediaries under colonial supervision. They collected taxes, enforced orders and administered local communities.
Assimilation and Association
France promoted assimilation in selected areas by extending French institutions and culture. Association later accepted limited recognition of African customs while preserving French control.
Economic Policies
Colonial governments promoted cash crops, mining, labour recruitment, taxation, transport infrastructure and trade in ways that served European industries.
Effects
Policies weakened African sovereignty, changed social institutions and created colonial economies, although they also introduced schools, hospitals and transport systems unevenly.
